Abstract: Summarizes nine articles, one book, and one set of conference proceedings, all of them concerned with academic library planning and construction in tropical areas. The writings span the period 1961-88. Most of the authorities cited have a major concern for heat control, and not all of them support central air-conditioning. Building shape, materials used, landscaping, and the placement on the site all have impacts on temperature control. Lack of an information base on tropical buildings is cited as a serious problem. Another need frequently expressed is for official national standards for library buildings, and for the observance of such standards where they do exist. The role of the librarian in the planning process should be enhanced, but the librarian must have suitable training or should seek to engage a qualified librarianconsultant to work with the architects.
The past three decades have witnessed an explosion of higher education in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Nigeria, for example, the number of universities has grown from two in 1960 to 25 today. If the university library is to serve as an effective teaching and research center, it must be suitably housed; clearly this is not invariably the case among African university libraries.
Yet a considerable number of published articles and reports have dealt with the problems involved in building libraries that will serve their purposes. It is the intent of this survey to cite and comment upon all the relevant writings, to simplify access to information that should be of value to those concerned with new library buildings or modifications in Africa, or in other tropical regions. The period covered is 1961-1988. Most of the writings examined appeared in professional library journals
One of the earliest studies of tropical library buildings was an article by J. Rousset de Pina in 1961 [1]. The author stressed the idea of comfort, which led to concerns about humidity as well as heat, and protection against insects and parasites. Protective measures against fire were suggested. Rousset de Pina asserted that central air conditioning is not always desirable because of practical difficulties of electrical supply and maintenance. He mentioned the comfortable, well ventilated library on the Ibadan campus as an example that did not require general air conditioning.
Wilfred J. Plumbe's 1963 article [2] was written while he was Librarian of Ahmadu Bello University in Nigeria. He identified five types of climate, each of which requires a different approach in building planning: temperate; tropical sea-island or influenced by the sea, upland, hot-humid, and hot-dry. Some geographical situations partake of more than one of these types
As our concern here is only with tropical areas, we will limit our comments to Plumbe's analysis of the regions outside the temperate zones. In the tropics, "the major conditions and factors of which account must be taken are the great intensity of solar radiation, aridity, dust, high relative humidity, driving rain, sea-spray, and high wind velocity." Plumbe offers practical advice to architects and planners who confront those forces of nature. A basic consideration is the siting of the structure. It needs to be oriented so that the sun does not "strike the longest walls and penetrate into the library in the early morning and late afternoon," and placed so that windows catch the prevailing breezes. In most areas the entire site needs to be treated for termites before construction begins
Plumbe pointed out that the roof of the building can exclude solar heat if it is surfaced with highly reflective materials like aluminum, or if the roof and ceiling are separated by a ventilated space. He mentioned the solution proposed for one of the new libraries at Ahmadu Bello University: the placement of the campus water tanks under the roof. In all rainy areas, the roof needs to be pitched, not flat.
The question of central air conditioning was approached with the same outlook offered by Rousset de Pina. In an ideal situation a building would be sealed, with central air conditioning and humidity control. But there are frequently problems with power supply, and a sealed building without functioning air conditioning is not desirable. Fans and good ventilation planning had proved satisfactory at Ibadan University. Small windows at floor level and also near the ceiling will improve air circulation. Interiors should have high ceilings and few dividing walls. Small air conditioners in staff rooms and study rooms may be more functional than full-building systems.
Some new points were raised in Margaret Amosu's 1974 article [3] about the planning and construction of the Medical Library at Ibadan University. She stated that it was rare for any institution in the region to start with all necessary buildings, and the libraries in particular were often housed in temporary quarters. To her, this was an advantage because when planning committees met most of the members had personally suffered the discomfort of inadequate space and noise. Amosu emphasized that university library buildings had to be planned with the growth rate of education in mind large enough to handle the numbers anticipated over a twenty-year period. She recommended a balance between natural lighting and artificial lighting.
The failure of planners in Nigeria to take account of growing student populations was a criticism emphasized by Ralph Nwamefor in 1975. He cited the space problems experienced by libraries in just a few years after construction-or even before construction was completed in a half dozen universities. He also offered recommendations about siting, flexibility of interiors, and climatic conditions; however he does not add anything substantial to what had been written before.
Four papers emerged from a Seminar on Tropical Library Architecture organised by the Committee of University Librarians of Nigerian Universities in 1980 [4]. E. A. Adeyemi, in "A Model Brief for Nigerian University Libraries," traced the historical development of European academic libraries before reaching his main topic, which he treated only in general terms. A paper by B. A. Oni-Orisan, "Various Designs of Academic Libraries," also concentrated on European models, although he did speak also about the University of Ibadan. His paper was not as useful as it might have been. A practising Nigerian architect, A. A. Egbor, spoke on "Air Conditioning and the Tropical University Library." In this incisive and lucid presentation, Egbor reviewed the familiar considerations about various approaches to air conditioning, and expressed his preference for centralized whole building systems. If centralized air conditioning is to be effective in the tropics, the building needs to be designed for reduction of heat penetration-a point made earlier by Plumbe. Egbor pleaded for adequate maintenance procedures, thus touching on the problem that has plagued tropical libraries. In fact, none of the centrally air conditioned libraries in Nigeria have proved functional, and in some of them the original centralized system has been replaced by unit or split systems.
The final paper to be considered from this Seminar is "The Need to Reconsider Basic Factors Affecting the Design of University Libraries," by Ramsey Zeine. He proposed and illustrated with sketches-six fundamental factors to guide library planners: book location, reader book exposure, natural light, integration of electronics, noise control, and prevention of vandalism. These are essential "librarian factors," rather than "architect factors." Zeine stressed the necessity of continuous interaction during the planning between architect and librarian, and suggested that the architect prepare several sketches for the librarian to examine.
At the 1980 conference of the Nigerian Library Association, B. U. Nwafor presented a paper, later published. [5] He considered the 1978 "Standards Guide for Universities" of Nigeria's National Universities Commission, and concentrated on the air conditioning recommendations (for centralized systems). Nwafor expressed his preference for unit air conditioning, citing the experiment at the University of Jos, where 16 different units are used, in the hope that at no time would they all break down at once.
Two articles by Indian librarians appeared in 1982. Rajwant Singh emphasized the need for the participation of the librarian in the selection of the site and in planning the building. [6] His recommendation regarding air-conditioning in India, where power shortages and mechanical failures are a factor, as in Africa, was to avoid a central system. It is better to have separate systems for the stacks, microform rooms, and reading rooms. He had special concerns for avoiding noise, external and internal, in reading rooms. He called for noise-absorbent materials on ceilings, walls, and partitions, and for rubber pads on chair legs. It is of interest that India in 1982 already had accepted national standards for library buildings; Singh believed that it was the only country to have done so. However he had to add that the standards were not taken seriously, and that one task of the librarian should be to see that they were actually observed by architects. Singh's article did not deal particularly with problems of tropical buildings.
The other article from India was by Girja Kumar. [7] He found the Indian experience of planning for academic libraries to have been "so sporadic as to be beyond any conceptual expression." Among the few good examples of university buildings he mentioned Panjab University Library, Chandigarh, in which the French architect Le Corbusier was involved. Another fine example was the Madras University Library, constructed under the guidance of S. R. Ranganathan. But most Indian libraries continued to be constructed according to monumental designs, with high ceilings and vast foyers. Kumar stressed the necessity of outlining the functions of a proposed building in advance. He also listed factors to be considered in tropical climate's, and recommended attention to landscaping as one important approach to keeping buildings cool. Shrubbery and trees keep the temperature down and also reduce the strength of dust-laden winds. Sun screens outside a building, as used by Le Corbusier in Chandigarh, have proved useful in several sites. Other points he made were that national cultures should be considered in building; for example the Indian love of courtyards can be carried over into libraries, and their preference for sitting crosslegged or in a reclining position should be considered in choosing furnishings. The author was also interested in aesthetic factors as inspirations to scholars. Not much of his discussion pertained specifically to problems of tropical construction.
A book by S. E. Ifidon, Essentials of Management for African University Libraries (1985),[8] had a chapter on tropical building problems. The author stressed the need for determining scientifically the correct size of the library, based on the size and composition of the teaching faculty and library staff, the curriculum and teaching methods, availability of other study areas on the campus, and the expected rate of acquisition. He emphasized the need for librarian/ architect cooperation. And he concluded with a summary of the air conditioning pros and cons, giving his preference for unit or split systems.
"One of the very largest library buildings in Africa," at the University of Calabar, was described in a 1987 article by Lishi Kwasitsu. [9] Calabar, population 100,000, is capital of the Cross River State in Nigeria. The University dates from 1975. The Librarian, N. U. Ita, was responsible for planning of the building. Occupied in 1984, it is an open access library with a total area of 22,746 square meters, seating 2,046 students. Advantageous features include "noise proof but plain glass" windows, with aluminum screening to reduce glare; sound absorbent ceilings; and a sloped roof. On the negative side there is no electronic security system installed or planned, and there is no wire net on the windows (which can be opened)-two factors that may contribute to theft of materials. There are also too many entrances, seven, to provide adequate control. And while the roof is sloped, it is concrete, a material that usually develops leaks. (Concrete was used over the librarian's objections.) While there are 22 senior staff, only 10 offices were provided. The air conditioning is centralized, but hooked to the University's standby generators. Calabar offers a good building model, but not one without flaws.
A comprehensive review of library design in developing countries appeared in 1987, by Peter Havard-Williams and J. E. Jengo. [10]The authors found that "the first major problem in library planning and design in developing countries' was lack of involvement on the part of the librarian. A detailed account was offered of the kind of preparation a librarian needs in order to make a useful contribution, and the suggestion was made-for the first time in the literature surveyed that a library consultant could be engaged in order to bring proper expertise to the project. Such consultants are common in the United States, but less so in Europe and virtually unknown in the Third World. The main idea is that the specifically library needs of the building should be scientifically studied and presented.
Building materials were carefully reviewed in this article, and much novel advice was given. The basic position of the authors was that local materials are always less costly than the usual reinforced concrete, and may often prove to be superior insulators. There is also less noise from such materials as mud and wattle, or clay. A thorough analysis of climatic conditions in the tropics was presented, amplifying the ideas of Plumbe. The Ahmadu Bello building is mentioned as a good example of an insulated roof with water tanks under it; this building was also mentioned by Plumbe. Very useful advice was given on solar control in this essay, including the use of projecting fins over walls, open grille tiles, pierced screens, louvers, glazed windows, and tinted glass. Air flow is improved by a single width construction, "open at both ends with numerous apertures in the rooms. It should also be raised on piles, for the air up to about two metres from the ground is almost stagnant." When there is central air conditioning, windows should be made to open as a precaution against breakdown, and all other elements of the building should be designed for maximum coolness without the air conditioning in operation. Landscaping, for coolness, and fumigation to control insects were other practices encouraged in the article. There was also valuable commentary on materials used in furniture and shelving under humid or arid conditions.
The last article to consider is Ozowa's, from 1988 [11], which presented some original ideas on planning as well as a restatement of various earlier views by Plumbe, Havard-Williams, and others. Ozowa spoke out plainly about the need to avoid politics in the choice of architects and of librarians. Selection of these persons through patronage or quota systems may result in a combined lack of sufficient knowledge to create a useful building. He mentioned also the need to develop an information base of cost data on buildings already constructed. Data of this kind are not readily available in African situations. Without this kind of information, funding is not often fixed and positive. Authorities frequently rechannel some of the money intended for a library building to other purposes.
Ozowa was also concerned about the use of imported building materials, e.g. concrete, instead of locally produced materials. He referred to stockpiles of Nigerian burnt brick that were not being utilized, although this material is in some ways preferable to concrete. Another neglected aspect of planning has been the service structure of the library: whether it will be centralized, decentralized, or some combination of the two.
The major problem for Ozowa was the lack of library building standards; this concern had been expressed eight years earlier by Nwafor, but nothing had happened to change the situation. The library professional associations need to create such standards and gain their acceptance. If they do not, the alternative will be that standards will be written and imposed by non-library agencies. In Nigeria, the National Universities Commission has issued a document that is currently in use; but it does not deal specifically with library buildings, and has not been endorsed by the Nigerian Library Association. Without satisfactory standards the architects (especially when they are not Africans) tend to follow standards and practice of building in Europe or America. Thus they fail to account for local conditions. For example a library in a region with undependable electrical supply cannot rely entirely on lifts to move books from floor to floor, but should have ramps connecting the floors. And the fact that students in Africa usually have no study spaces except in the library will require a larger number of such spaces than are needed in the developed countries.
Taken together, the views expressed in all these articles appear to cover the necessary points of concern to librarians. At this time in Africa the construction of new library buildings may await the improvement of economic conditions. It is a period that librarians in the various professional associations could use wisely in the establishment of policy and standards, so that the next round of university construction may proceed on the basis of sound reasoning and experience.
[1] J. Rousset de Pina, "Construction of Libraries in Tropical Countries," Unesco Bulletin for Libraries 15 (Sept.-Oct. 1961): 263-70
[2] Wilfred J. Plumbe, "Climate as a Factor in the Planning of University Library Buildings," Unesco Bulletin for Libraries 17 (Nov.-Dec. 1963): 316-25.
[3]Margaret Amosu, "On the Planning of a New Library," Nigerian Libraries 10-2/3 (Aug.-Dec. 1974): 141-47.
[4] "Tropical Library Architecture," Proceedings of a Seminar at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria, 30-31 May 1980, ed. K. Mahmud and B. U. Nwafor (Zaria: Kashim Ibrahim Library, Ahmadu Bello University, 1985).
[5] B. U. Nwafor, "Standards for Nigerian Academic Library Buildings," Nigerian Libraries 16-3 (1980): 71-78.
[6] Rajwant Singh, "Building, Furniture and Equipment for Special Libraries," Herald of Library Science 21-3/4 (July-Oct. 1982): 227-38.
[7] Girja Kumar, "Planning and Design of Library Buildings: The Indian Experience," Library Herald 20-2/4 (July 1981-March 1982): 59-71.
[8] S. E. Ifidon, Essentials of Management for African University Libraries (Lagos: Libriservice, 1985).
[9] Lishi Kwasitsu, "The University of Calabar Definitive Library Building: History and Future Development," International Library Review 18 (1987): 73-80.
[10] Peter Havard-Williams and J. E. Jengo, "Library Design and Planning in Developing Countries," Libri 37-2 (1987): 160-76.
[11] V. N. Ozowa, "Planning University Library Buildings in Nigeria," International Library Review 20 (1988): 375-86.
Betty Ifidon is Senior Librarian at Bendel State University, Ekpoma, Nigeria. She has published previously in Library Scientist.
© 1990, World Libraries, Dominican University