Abstract: Summarizes the long history of immigration into Malaysia by Indian (primarily Tamil) laborers, noting the remarkable assimilation of the outsiders into Malaysian society. However, upward mobility was unlikely until government reforms in the 1960s, the most potent change being enhanced access to education at all levels. The Malaysian Constitution prohibits discrimination against any citizen. Library provision to Tamil schools and communities is at the same level as provision to Malaysians: it includes primary and secondary school libraries, and public libraries with stocks of Tamil books and specialist staff. The University of Malaya has a Department of Indian Studies and a substantial library collection to support it; the university publishes checklists of new Tamil acquisitions. Educated Indians learn Malay and English, and thus participate in the general library service as well as the specialized services maintained for them.
Early Immigration
Historians have postulated the arrival of Indians to the Malay Peninsula over 2,000 years ago. They were birds of passage, and being mainly traders and travellers, free and powerful, they flowed to and from India, the Peninsula and the lands beyond. It was not until the beginning of the 19th century that consolidated blocks of emigration from India took place, with the Peninsula as the target destination. The Malay Peninsula had been colonized, as British Malaya, beginning in 1786. Economic exploitation of the country soon began, initially with the cultivation of plantation crops — spices, sugar cane, pepper and rubber — then later with primary production of mining and quarrying. These economic activities had to be supported by infrastructures of road and rail transport. In combination, these activities required a large labour force, which was not available locally. Throughout the 19th and into the early 20th century, cheap, unskilled labour from South India was recruited into Malaya in large numbers through assisted emigration. The indenture contract system originated with a contract, usually written and voluntarily assumed; but in practice it was often not a true contract at all [1, p.55]. The labourer in theory would be freed of his contract at the end of three years but in reality remained indebted to work for a pittance for years on end, except when repatriated should he prove unsuitable. This system was abolished in 1910 and succeeded by a recruitment system under a headman, or kangany. The kangany recruitment system began in the 1890s and remained unaltered in its fundamental aspects until 1938, when it was abolished following a ban by the Indian government on emigration of unskilled labour [1, p.56–57].
In addition to these two methods of assisted labour in Malaya, there were voluntary free labourers who, like emigrants everywhere, left their home country for a variety of reasons — economic, political and social — in search of a better life. Among these were the better–educated and those with professional skills.
Altogether, the South Indian was perhaps the most satisfactory type of labourer, for in addition to being a British subject, accustomed to British rule, he was a good worker, not too ambitious and easily manageable. He had none of the self–reliance nor the capacity of the Chinese, but he was the most amenable to the comparatively lowly paid and rather regimented life of estates and government projects. He was
well–behaved, docile and had neither the education nor the enterprise to rise, as the Chinese often did above the level of manual labour. These characteristics of the South Indian labourer made him all the more indispensable as a worker. [1, p.47]
Throughout this period, while the majority still saw India as their permanent base, many others stayed to make Malaya their new home. They brought out wives and families, or married locally into their own community. Thus by the time of Independence, in 1957, Malaya had a sizeable settled community of nearly a million Indians, whose forebears had emigrated in the preceding two hundred years. The bulk of early Indian emigration to Malaya had been of an ephemeral character, with approximately 4 million entering and 2.8 million leaving the country between 1860 and 1957 [1, p.68]. Since 1957 the population has been largely a settled one, with the majority being Malaysian citizens in their own right, through operation of law or through being born to nationals.
Socio–Economic Aspects
Writing in 1965, Arasaratnam made the following observation:
The fact that the Indian element in the Malaysian population arose primarily from the need for plantation labour and that this labour was looked for and was forthcoming from one particular region of India [Tamil Nadu] to the exclusion of others has lent some homogeneity to the Malaysian Indians. It has resulted in the present position that about 80% of Indians in Malaysia are Tamil–speakers, another 10% being Malayalees and Telugus from closely related language–culture groups. The remaining 10% are northern Indians among whom Punjabis predominate. [2, p.101]
Studies of Indians, especially of the Tamil estate labourer, testify to their economic poverty and relative inability to move upward socially. From the mid–1960s, however, many factors have combined to better the lot of Indians. Minimum wage legislation, unionization of estate labour, strengthening of the cooperative movement, and focused remedial policy (consequent to revealing academic studies) have helped. A fundamental factor has been access to education. In the years following independence, thousands of primary and secondary schools have been built all over the country, in both urban and rural areas. Fees were abolished, and consistent publicity given, year after year, to urge parents to send their children to school. Before independence, only one university admitting a few hundred students a year (from Malaya and Singapore) was available; today there are seven universities in Malaysia alone, admitting some 10,000 students each year among them. There are also innumerable technical and vocational institutions. In this connection, the following observation is germane:
For those who attended estate Tamil primary schools before 1957,the extent of occupational or social mobility was very limited. The Razak Report (1956) which unified the disparate elements into an integrated, national system provided a structure which was hitherto non-existent. Under this structure it was possible for the children of an estate worker who entered a Tamil school to complete a university education. [3, p.89]
Between 1982 and 1992, Tamil primary school enrolment increased from 73,900 to 105,000 children. Recent developments in the educational system (since 1988) have further integrated vernacular primary schools within the mainstream of the national education structure, thereby making it possible for Tamil school primary students to be admitted into national secondary schools, which are the base for vocational and technical institutions producing skilled labour; and academic institutions at tertiary levels. Increasing opportunities to Indians (and all other sectors of the population) have reaped subsequent economic and social benefits. Better economic conditions of parents have naturally led to enhanced economic and social prospects for their children. In addition, consistent efforts of the Malayan/Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC), a political party formed in 1955 to help fight for independence, thereafter to better the lot of Indians, has led to heightened political awareness among members of the community and their ability to work for change through political means.
Indians in Contemporary Malaysia
Library services can never be given in vacuo. They are delivered to a clientele whose profiles, needs and wishes must be understood for the services to be effective. National conditions and the environment within which the Indian community must operate, and the milieu in which library services are given are briefly indicated below.
National Conditions
Contemporary Malaysia is recognized as being one of the foremost among developing nations. Political stability since independence (1957), low inflation rate, good infrastructures, trained and skilled manpower, and a burgeoning economy based on a range of natural resources (oil, gas, minerals and timber) are among the factors that continue to attract foreign investment. The country remains fairly cosmopolitan, open and receptive to foreign technology and advances.
A basic fear of minority groups is suppression and denial of socioeconomic opportunities. In Malaysia, however, fundamental rights are guaranteed by the Constitution. Subject only to certain preferential provisions for the native bumiputra, the Malaysian Constitution, among other features, prohibits “discrimination against citizens on the ground only of religion, race, descent or place of birth in any law ....” (Article 8–2); guarantees firmly to her citizens, freedom of religion (Article 8–1); the right to speak and learn one's mother tongue (Article 151–1a); and therefore to practise one's culture. Equal access to education, including education in the vernacular languages,is also provided for (Articles 152–1 and 12–1).The right to own property is also guaranteed as a fundamental right within the Constitution (Article 8–1,2,5).
The Indian Community
As a group, Indians account for about 10% of total population. Though a minority, the community is solidly entrenched within Malaysia's pluralistic society and is much respected. In direct contrast to early immigrants, nearly all Indians (96%) in Malaysia today are Malaysian citizens (1980 Census, Table 8.18), to whom all constitutional guarantees apply. The 1980 Census enumerated the following linguistic groups of Indians: Tamils (Indian); Malayali, Telegu, Sikh; other Punjabis, other Indians, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Sri Lankan Tamil, and other Sri Lankans. Tamils are the predominant linguistic group, forming over 80% of the total (1970 Census). Considerable advances have been made since early days. By 1980, over 78% of the community aged five years and above had some schooling, i.e., achieved some level of literacy. In a country where the national literacy rate is 75%, the literacy rate for Indians in 1980 was 74% — a very respectable rate indeed. In addition, over 10% of the community had obtained tertiary qualifications.
While circumstances are still acknowledged to be relatively backward, considerable progress has also been made. Indians are found in every sphere of remunerative economic activity, especially in top professions such as medicine, law and academia. The 1980 census showed that the majority of those employed are in the public sector (82%), while 16% were self–employed in manufacturing, business, retail, etc. Indians have been represented in the government and at various levels of the administrative and professional services since independence.
Provision of Tamil–Script Library Materials
It is against the background just described that one must consider the provision of library facilities and services, be it to the Indian or to other communities. In reality, a comprehensive study should consider library provision of materials to all the Indian linguistic groups represented in the country, but such a task is beyond this tentative offering. As Tamils make up more than 80 percent of the total Indian population, this paper first attempts to survey library provision in terms of
Tamil–script materials. Some observations on general library provision for the Indian community at large are then attempted.
School Libraries
Eleven years of education are provided gratis to the Malaysian child (six years primary; five years secondary/upper secondary). Entrance to Form VI and nationally–run colleges and universities, however, is on a competitive basis within main ethnic groups. Tertiary education fees are nominal and have basically remained unchanged over the last 30 years. Teacher education is effected by a string of 27 teacher training colleges and at faculties of education at various universities. The 7,600 primary schools and 1,400 secondary schools are spread all over the country. Currently, of the total Malaysian population of just over 17 million, more than 2.53 million are enrolled in primary schools; and it is not surprising that the Ministry of Education has by far the biggest allocation (18 percent of the total national budget) of all ministries. It is because of the democratization of education that the national literacy rate has climbed dramatically over the last 30 years since independence.
Tamil Primary Schools
Of the total of 4,609 primary schools in Peninsular Malaysia, 543 (12 percent) are Tamil schools, with an enrollment of some 105,000 pupils (0.04 percent of total primary school enrollment). The trend is toward increase, as more Indian parents see the advantage of their children being trilingual (English and Malay are also taught), seeing this as an enhancement of their secondary school education. All 543 schools, like all other schools which come under the supervision of the Ministry of Education, are equipped with libraries, or resource centers, as they are established to help in facilitating the teaching process. Teacher librarians, many of whom are trained, are put in charge of these libraries. They are generally helped by students on the library committee, and many are rather resourceful in making use of the facilities provided.
The main source of library funding comes from the Ministry, which follows a set formula in making available library funds for all schools. An overall base allocation is given which is dependent on the size of school. In addition, a per capita allocation is subvented. This ensures that all libraries have regular and consistent funding. In most schools, Parent–Teacher Associations (PTA) work to raise additional money for school projects, such as the library. In addition, gifts from past pupils associations and other philanthropic donations, including books from booksellers and publishers, also go some way towards increasing library collections.
The progress of these schools is carefully monitored. In every one of the 11 states in which Tamil primary schools are established is a supervisor of Tamil primary schools, who is directly under the State Director of Education. The Ministry’s Schools Division has an experienced Coordinator of Tamil Schools, who further ensures that all goes well. There are no Tamil schools in Terengganu, Sabah, or Sarawak, where the Tamil communities are very small. Pupils, however, can still study Tamil in POL classes (explained below). In sum, then, it is clear that the provision of Tamil–script materials at the primary school level is supported and consistent, that the stocks are properly housed, and the library is monitored and used regularly. It should be noted, however, that the standards do vary, being dependent upon such factors as enthusiasm and interest of the teacher–librarians, students, PTAs and others, all of which do influence the development of libraries.
Secondary Schools
In Malaysia today, a total of 1,300 national secondary schools enroll some 1,335,000 students. All these schools, as directed by the Ministry, would also have libraries (or resource centers) and teacher librarians, many of whom are trained. The medium of instruction in all national schools is, of course, the national language, Malay, while English is compulsorily taught as a second language. However, under the Education Act of 1961, all schools (primary or secondary) with pupils wishing to study their mother tongue are obliged to hold such classes. Teachers are additionally employed and paid for by the Ministry to hold these POL (Pupils’ Own Language) classes.
Ministry of Education Circular 1/1988 stipulates clearly that the teaching of Tamil (and Chinese) must be provided on the request of parents of 15 or more students in a school. Thus, secondary school students, though following lessons in Malay and learning English as a second language would still have the opportunity to continue with learning Tamil (or Chinese, as the case may be) through their POL classes. However, library provision of Tamil texts for such classes would be very limited; and the responsibility for obtaining texts for such classes would generally fall on the students themselves.
It is generally acknowledged that provision of libraries is only one factor, though an important one, in providing information. In Malaysia the educational role of school libraries is supported by other institutions. The national radio and television networks have specific time slots for school educational programs in all the four major languages: Malay, English, Chinese and Tamil. In addition, an active publishing industry ensures a range of Tamil newspapers and magazines, both serious and popular. A few big publishers ensure an adequate supply of texts for schools. In addition, many Tamil books and magazines are imported from India. Thus library provision of Tamil materials is supported by the written word and audio–visual fare openly and consciously made easily available to Tamil youth.
Public Libraries
In the last 30 years, a country–wide system of public libraries has been established. This includes a main state library for each of the 13 states. Some of the public libraries are very old, dating back to pre–war days; most were established in the 1970s and 1980s. Collections range from 20,000 to over 300,000 volumes. All are open to the public free of charge. In early 1991, the National Library of Malaysia (NLM) published a very useful update of its national library directory [4] which contains information and statistics on public, special and academic libraries. Out of the 70 public/state libraries listed, seven libraries (10%) indicated that they held Tamil materials. These are fairly big libraries by Malaysian standards, with holdings ranging from 35,000 — 210,000 volumes. The seven libraries are located in four states: Perlis (1), Perak (2), Selangor (3) and Malacca (1). Questionnaires returned from public libraries with Tamil–script collections indicate that, generally, specialist staff or staff–time has been allocated to deal with the materials. Some report parttime volunteer workers where Tamil staff expertise is not available. In addition, reference services, story–telling sessions, audio–visual presentations and publicity contribute to inform and attract their public to the collections, especially pupils from Tamil schools. In Malaysia, public libraries count students among the greater part of their reading public; though many adults, especially lecturers in nearby teaching institutions, and the occasional researcher (especially those needing local materials) also use the collections.
Special and Research Libraries
The Directory lists a total of 264 special and research libraries. These are libraries attached to government departments, research institutes and private sector organizations. They are not open to the public, though access can sometimes be granted to researchers on a needs basis. Of the 264 special libraries listed 11 libraries (4 percent) indicate they hold Tamil materials. Such materials, however, are likely to be too specialized to be of use to the lay reader. Thus, for example, materials would include Tamil examination papers (in the Examination Syndicate Library), Tamil scripts (in the National Film and Broadcasting Department Libraries) and tribunal submissions and awards (in the Industrial Courts Library).
Academic Libraries
The Directory lists 111 academic libraries attached to private or national educational institutions. Of the 111 libraries, 7 (6 percent) hold Tamil collections. Five are teacher training college libraries; one is a college library, and one a university library, the University of Malaya Library (UML). The libraries are located in the six states of Kedah, Perak, Selangor (2), Negeri Sembilan, Johore, and Sabah. With the exception of UML, which accepts external membership from the public on a needs basis, the other libraries are basically closed to the public; they are meant for the students and staff of the college and other official legitimate users.
Of all the academic and literary collections in the country, the oldest is that of the University of Malaya Library, which dates back to the mid–1950s. In 1954, the University (then in Singapore) engaged Professor Nilakanta Shastri, formerly of the University of Madras, as a consultant to study the setting up of a department of Indian studies. The department was later established, in 1956, and began to offer courses in 1957, by which time 2,600 Tamil items had been collected as a result of purchases and generous donations. The department (and books) moved to Kuala Lumpur in 1959. Over the last 30 years, the collection has grown to over 20,000 monographic volumes, with an annual growth of about 600–800 volumes. The UML also subscribes to over 30 serial titles, of which two are newspaper titles and the rest include popular magazines and academic titles. In addition to Tamil materials, the library holds some materials in other Indian languages and scripts, including Pali, Sanskrit, Urdu, Malayalam, Telugu, Punjabi, and others.
The Division of Indian Studies in the library was established in 1987. Its staff comprises one trained librarian who holds a graduate degree in Tamil literature and a Masters degree in librarianship, and one clerical/typist support person. Others help on a part–time basis. Research and reference services are offered. All catalogue entries have been transliterated and information is being converted to MARC records. Items purchased over the last five years are already available (in transliterated format) for reference over the library's OPAC terminals. The collection, like the library, is accessible to all researchers, nationally and internationally. It is open to those members of the public who register themselves as external members of the library on a regular basis and to anyone wishing to refer to it on an ad hoc basis. The focus and strength of the collection is the Tamil Malaysiana, a small but growing collection of all materials published in or written about Malaya/Malaysia, placed on closed access.
UML has been the chief source for Tamil bibliography in the country. In 1969, UML published the classic Tamil Malaysiana: A Checklist of Tamil Books and Periodicals Published in Malaysia and Singapore [5], and in 1984 it published Indians in Peninsular Malaysia: A Study and Bibliography [6]. It is the only library in Malaysia to publish a separate accessions list for Tamil materials (since 1988) [7]. Significant new acquisitions and news items of interest are published in the library's quarterly newsletter, the Kekal Abadi. The library is extremely fortunate in being able to obtain close cooperation from the University’s Department of Indian Studies. Staff of these two departments are embarking on a joint research project (1992–93) to document and consolidate on a comprehensive basis all Tamil Malaysiana.
National Archives of Malaysia and National Library of Malaysia
Both the National Archives of Malaysia (NAM) and the National Library of Malaysia (NLM) hold substantial records and materials in Tamil as both institutions are legal depositories and therefore should automatically obtain local imprints. Both institutions are freely open to the public, subject to normal rules of access (especially at the Archives) which serve to protect the records and collection. Both organizations have specialist staff to deal with the language and materials.
The National Library reference and loan services are particularly popular. In this connection, the Tamil fiction collection and Tamil serials are expected to be the most heavily used. All materials are listed in the Malaysian National Bibliography, which is now computerized.
The National Archives files and records of Tamil Associations include valuable runs of old Tamil newspapers which are used by researchers. Various lists and finding tools have been compiled, including one on Tamil, Malayalam, and Punjabi periodicals.
Community Libraries
Apart from the formal, established system of libraries, there are important collections which are used by the community. Estate libraries have been established in 60–65 percent of the country's 1,300 estates. Although only 20 percent are properly housed, their location — in family planning clinics, creches and community centers — make them very accessible to the estate community, including school children. Temple collections, consisting of temple publications for devotees and commemorative issues marking festivals and landmarks in temple history, are interesting as research material. Societies, associations and other organizations for youth and culture also maintain small collections which are open to their members. Societies, such as the Hindu Youth Club and the Arulnirithirukuttam (a spiritual development organization) and the University of Malaya Tamil Language Society, help to establish libraries or work towards enhancing their collections.
The Indian Malaysians of today have come a long way from their immigrant forebears. The Indian community is fully integrated into the national polity. Although, as with any of the other racial groups, there are still pockets of ignorance, illiteracy and economic backwardness, especially in the rural areas, the average Indian is literate and is generally fairly well–placed on the economic and social ladder. In fact, the 1980 Census reported that “within Peninsular Malaysia, the ability to speak at least two languages was highest among the Indians, with higher proportions of Indians than Chinese [being] able to converse in Bahasa Malaysia [Malay, the national language].” Furthermore, of the three main racial groups, Indians are the most multilingual. Indian youths receive an education that permits them to be conversant in all three languages; and for many, Malay and English may well be their first working languages, as these are the chief media of instruction up to tertiary levels.
Thus, while some serious works and a deal of fiction continue to be published in Tamil, the Indian intelligentsia, like their international counterparts, largely publish in English. For many, a high degree of proficiency in Malay has also been acquired. Indian academics in the local universities teach in the national language; lecturers in the University of Malay’s Department of Indian Studies read and write fluently in all three languages: Malay, English, and Tamil. For example, proficiency in Malay has been so well achieved that the recent inaugural lecture given by S. Singaravelu, Professor of Indian Studies, entitled “Corak dan Ciri–Ciri Utama Tamadun India” (Patterns and Characteristics of Indian Civilization) was delivered in Malay.
Against this background, it is unrealistic to consider only library provision of Tamil–script materials as relevant. The country's libraries and archives hold millions of volumes in many languages. The stocks include a vast body of materials relating to all aspects of India and the rest of the world. These recreational and educational materials in the country's entire system of libraries are open to all races without hindrance. These are the stocks to which all Malaysians turn; and they remain the library provision which must be considered to be of prime importance to the Indian community in their search for knowledge.
I am deeply grateful to the following individuals and departments: Mr. Wong Kim Siong, Deputy Director II, Education Department of Federal Territory, Kuala Lumpur, Ministry of Education, Malaysia, for directing my attention to the two circulars cited in the paper; Mr. S. Marimuthu, Senior Organiser of Primary Schools, Schools Division, Ministry of Education, for very kindly supplying me with statistics and information relating to schools; and to fellow librarians who so kindly responded to my questionnaire. In my own library, I wish to thank Mrs. Komodhi Thaiveegan, Indian Studies Division Librarian, who cheerfully searched out useful materials and references; and to Puan Noraini Hashim and Mrs. Lai Siew Peng, who input and set the paper.
[1.] Kernial Singh Sandhu, "Some Preliminary Observations on the Origins and Characteristics of Indian Migration to Malaya, 1786–1957," Paper presented at the First International Conference of Southeast Asian Historians, Singapore, 1961.
[2.] S. Arasaratnam, “Aspects of Society and Cultural Life of Indians in Malaysia,” in The Cultural Problems of Malaysia in the Context of Southeast Asia (Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Society of Orientalists, 1965), pp. 101–107.
[3.] T. Marimuthu, "Education, Social Mobility and the Plantation Environment: A Proposal for Enquiry," Jurnal Pendidikan 2 (August 1971): 86–93.
[4.] Panduan Perpustakaan di Malaysia (Directory of Libraries in Malaysia), 3rd ed. (Kuala Lumpur: National Library of Malaysia, 1991).
[5.] Rama Subbiah, comp., Tamil Malaysiana: A Checklist of Tamil Books and Periodicals Published in Malaysia and Singapore (Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Library, 1969).
[6.] Raja Krishnan Ramasamy and J. Rabindra Daniel, Indians in Peninsular Malaysia: A Study and Bibliography (Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Library, 1984).
[7.] University of Malaya Library, Koleksi Pengajian India: Senarai Perolehan (Indian Studies Collection: Accessions List), Jan./Mar. 1988– , quarterly.
Khoo Siew Mun is Project Coordinator, Women's Affairs Division, Ministry of National Unity and Community Development, Malaysia. Her previous post was Chief Librarian, University of Malaya. She has degrees from the University of Malaya and a Diploma in Library and Information Studies, University of London. Mrs. Mun has published about 50 papers in library science, economics, and development.
© 1993 Rosary College