AbstractThis paper presents, in essay form, a current picture of Ethiopian librarianship drawn from articles published in the 1980s and 1990s. The whole literature on the subject from 1944–1990 consisted of 169 items, according to one bibliography. Despite economic, political, and social strife, libraries in the country are surviving. There are two university libraries, 15 college libraries, 200 in secondary schools, 20 public libraries and 100 special libraries. Addis Ababa has the National Library. The Institute of Ethiopian Studies, in the capital, is being funded, with some duplication of coverage with the University. The National Archives, however, seems to be without staff at this time. Two national bibliographies exist, but one is about 12 years behind and the other (biennial) has limited coverage. Public library development has been slow, with minimal service and collections; the 20 units, including four branches of the National Library, serve 500,000 readers a year. There are also between 7,000 and 10,000 reading rooms supported by the Ministry of Education, and there is hope that they will develop into libraries. Not much is reported about school libraries, but there is government support for designing future buildings as multipurpose institutions with reading rooms. Noteworthy special libraries include those of the U.N. Economic Commission for Africa, and the International Livestock Center for Africa. Only 25 librarians had graduate degrees in 1988. Library education has been offered since 1966; in 1989 the School of Information Studies for Africa opened in Addis Ababa.
Although Ethiopia is one of the poorest nations, and has few libraries, there has been a substantial body of writing by Ethiopian librarians. In this review of articles, mostly written since 1980, there emerges a picture of the library situation in the country. Some background information may be helpful.
Ethiopia, the tenth largest country in Africa in land area, is situated in the northeast of the continent in the Horn of Africa. The population is 56,700,000, distributed unevenly over 1,157,585 square kilometers (446,952 square miles). Capital Addis Ababa, located near the center of the country, is by far the largest city with almost 1.5 million people. Even compared to other sub–Saharan African nations, Ethiopia is a poor country, ranking unfavorably in economic strength and quality of life. Per capita gross domestic poduct is US$130.
Dramatic political changes have taken place in the country in the last 20 years. In 1974, the long–standing imperial regime of Haile Selassie I was toppled and replaced by a provisionary military government. After three years of bloody turmoil within the government, Lt. Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam seized power and endeavored to eliminate any dissenters during the “red terror.” Civil unrest, however sprong up in the province of Eritrea and eventually among other ethnic sseparatist groups. By May 1991, grassroots representatives elected Meles Zenawi head of state; he remains as President. The poeple of Eritrea voted to reclaim their independence from Ethiopia in May 1993.
Unlike the rest of sub–Saharan Africa, Ethiopia was never colonized, maintaining its independence for more than 2,000 years (except for a period of Italian occupation from 1936–1941). Since “Western ideas have not had a chance to penetrate the society ... most of the traditions and customs are intact” (Ourgay 1991, 393). Also unique to Ethiopia is its rich literary tradition, which goes back to pre–Christian times. The Ethiopian alphabet developed in Sebean form, then Ce’ez; it is found on many inscriptions on stone, pottery, and metal objects. Later, manuscripts on parchment were created; most of these early documents were Christian scriptures translated into Ge’ez now strictly a liturgical language. In the late 1600s, the town of Gondar becaus a center of religious learning, secular education, and culture. The first printing press in East Africa was imported to Massawa (now in Eritrea) in 1863, and began operation in 1867. Written language was not for the masses, however. Its use was restricted to the church and courts until the late 1800s.
Today, Amharic is the official language in a country where more than 70 languages are spoken (about 15 on a widespread basis). English is a second language, used exclusively in secondary and tertiary education. Illiteracy has been a significant problem, prompting literacy efforts in the 1960s, and later under the Mengistu regime. The latter drive was clearly successful, earning a medal from UNESCO and worldwide acclaim. Sitzman (1988) reports that illiteracy was 87.2 percent overall in 1974 for Ethiopians aged 10 and older; this figure was reduced to 55 percent by 1982 as a result of the government’s National Campaign for Development and Work, and now stands at 38 percent.
Since 1983, more than 10 million booklets in 15 Ethiopian languages have been published and distributed for post–literacy reading. Unfortunately, the number falls short of demand. The general state of publishing in the country is deplorable; only 240 titles published were published in 1991 (UNESCO 1993), down 38 percent from the previous year. “Cultural paper consumption is some 25 grams per head per year, as compared with over 25 kilograms per head in industrialized countries” (Pankhurst 1988, 240).
Despite political, economic, and social strife in recent years, libraries in Ethiopia have survived and even improved. Growth is modest by Western standards, perhaps, but remarkable from an Ethiopian perspective. Ethiopia has a National Library; supports public, academic, school, and special libraries; and offers academic training in librarianship. Pankhurst (1988,244) estimated the number of libraries by type: two university, 15 college, 200 secondary school, 20 public, and 100 special libraries, with a total of 400 service points. Most of the professional library literature about Ethiopia available outside the country has been written by Ethiopians and published in international journals. General overviews of the library infrastructure are presented by Mengste–Ab (1993) and Pankhurst (1988). Alemie’s (1993) assessment appears to be current, but it is in Hungarian and inaccessible to most readers. Pankhurst’s entry in the Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science is thorough but out–of–date (Pankhurst 1972). Ourgay (1991) provides a brief analysis ofthe professional writings about Ethiopian libraries. The author calls attention to a 1986 bibliography of 137 items compiled by Wahab (1986) and an update by Gupta (1991); both bibliographies remain unpublished and unavailable outside Ethiopia. Ourgay has also prepared a “Summary of Publications on Ethiopian Librarianship” (1944–1990), which lists a total of 169 items by type of document. Sitzman’s (1988) bibliography of 32 articles on Ethiopian librarianship is dated, but useful for retrospective studies.
The National Library of Ethiopia was first established by Haile Sealassie I in Addis Ababa on the occasion of his coronation in 1930. The first modern library in the country, it housed Ge’ez and Amharic manuscripts as well a books in French, English, Italian, and Russian, and contained a public readin; room. In reality, it served as a “prestige showpiece to impress Europeai dignitaries during the coronation [and] was not much frequented by the public.” (Mengste–Ab, 286). During their occupation, the Italians destroyed the Library and established a Central Government Library in the capital. Fron this facility, Haile Selassie I opened a new National Library in 1944. Befort the 1974 revolution, the Library was under the direction of the Antiquities Administration and had two divisions: the public library and the research library.
In 1975, the National Library became the responsibility of the Department of the National Library and Archives under the aegis of the Ministry of Culture and Sports. In this reorganization, four divisions were created: Public Services and Branch Libraries, Technical Services, the National Library, and Historical Archives. Pankhurst (1988) describes these roles in some detail. Belay (1985) outlines the structure and responsibilities of the institution, with a decidedly pro–government sentiment.
There is a rivalry of sorts between the National Library and the Institute of Ethiopian Studies Library, a branch of the Addis Ababa University Library. Both are committed to collecting Ethiopian materials produced in and outside the country. The National Library is supposed to receive three copies of each document published in the country, but has chronic problems procuring the publications. The Institute of Ethiopian Studies, on the other hand, is better funded and staffed, and considered the leading research library for Ethiopian studies. Gupta (1991,1992) voices criticism over this duplication of effort and resources. Pankhurst contends that the rivalry is “not necessarily wasteful,” but believes that “more coordination between the two institutions would not come amiss” (Pankhurst 1988, 241).
The status and fate ofthe National Archives are unclear. While established in 1944 with the National Library, and recognized in the reorganization of 1975, it has no permanent space and apparently no professional staff (Pankhurst 1988; Tsadik 1991). Its holdings consist of an unspecified number of papers by former government officials. Tsadik (1991) describes the recommendations made by scholars and consultants from Ethiopia and abroad in the Iast 30 years and calls for action.
As mentioned previously, Ethiopia has enacted a legal deposit mandate whereby the National Library is entitled to three copies of each title published in Ethiopia. The Legal Deposit Proclamation was made in 1975 and extended to audio–cassettes in 1988. Despite the law, there are loopholes, and “material published ... outside the capital is not always despatched or claimed” (Pankhurst 1988, 240).
Both the Institute of Ethiopian Studies and the National Library produce publications with a national bibliographic content. The Institute began publishing Ethiopian Publications in 1965 as a current bibliography of Ethiopian–published materials, based on library acquisitions. This professionally produced bibliography was printed annually at first but, beset by staffing difficulties and printing delays, has fallen a dozen years behind. The National Library has published a mimeographed bibliography based on legal deposit receipts since 1980, also confusingly called Ethiopian Publications. Beginning as a quarterly publication, it now appears every other year. Its strength is currency, its weaknesses restricted availability and limited coverage due to lack of enforcement of legal deposit.
Pankhurst notes that in spite of the work of these two organizations, coverage of European publication is still only partial (Pankhurst 1988, 243). Gupta (1992) provides a thorough discussion of the topic, including tables of bibliographic activity of both institutions through 1990. The duplication of effort has caused some confusion, even for Ethiopian library professionals, with Mengste–Ab declaring that no national bibliography had been issued by the early 1990s (Wedgeworth 1993) and Job (1990, 175) stating that the National Library took over the bibliography from the Institute of Ethiopian Studies.
Public library service is poor in Ethiopia. Most public library development has been coordinated by the National Library, which provides “guidance and support of public libraries” (Belay 1985,188). While the National Library aims to play only an advisory role, it still offers direct service to the public. It has about 25,000 non–circulating volumes that “[cater to] the interests of the local public” (Job 1990, 175); a general reading hall and other seating accommodates 300 people. Used heavily by students, who make up 85 percent of the patrons, the National Library “is found to be always occupied by readers” (Job 1990,175). Indeed, over 200,000 readers visit the Public Library Division each year (Pankhurst 1988, 243).
During 1967–1971, the National Library opened four branches in provincial centers using books from its own ollection. Since the 1974 revolution, 12 more ibraries have been established so that almost all provinces have a public library. “Libraries range from one room collections to reasonably well organized small ones” (Mengste–Ab 1993, 176). In his discussion of public libraries in Ethiopia, Job (1990) presents a table of the 16 provincial libraries, the year each was established, and the size of each collection. Libraries are open at least six days a week, but “services are minimal, if they exist at all” (Pankhurst 1988, 243). The majority of libraries provide both a reading room and book circulation; while access is generally free, various borrowing fees are often imposed (Alemie 1992, 29). An estimated 500,000 readers a year use the branch libraries (Pankhurst 1988,243). Collections in 1989 totaled more than 90,000 in the branch libraries, with individual collections ranging in size from 400 to 17,000 books. The Public Library Division purchases and processes about 2,000 books annually for all branch libraries — each branch receives about 125 items — and purchases about 1,500 books annually for its own library — “a meager amount” (Job 1990,176). Both Mengste–Ab and Pankhurst note that a number of municipal and community libraries have been established mainly through local initiative, but neither indicate the number of such libraries or the extent of their collections (Mengste–Ab 1993, 287; Pankhurst 1972, 220).
In addition to public libraries, reading rooms have developed through peasants’ associations, youth associations, and the Workers’ Party of Ethiopia, in order to serve the newly literate population. Under the direction of the Adult Education Department of the Ministry of Education, these reading rooms played an important role in the intensive literacy drive of the late 1970s and early 1980s. Reports of their numbers vary from 7,000 (Pankhurst 1989,7) to 9,424 (Job 1990,177). Job (1990) provides a chart comparing the number of reading rooms in each province in 1982 and 1989. Job optimistically contends that these reading rooms “would become fullfledged public libraries in course of time” (Job 1990,177). Indeed, three reading rooms of the Urban Settlers’ Association in Addis Ababa have grown into libraries with regular staff (Pankhurst 1988, 241). No descriptions of collections or staffing of reading rooms is available, though Pankhurst (1988, 242) claims party–sponsored rooms “tend to be meagrely stocked and concentrate on Marxist–Leninist literature.” With the change in government in 1991, the status of the party “associations” is unknown as is the fate of the reading rooms they sponsored.
Both Job (1990) and Pankhurst (1988) include the Addis Ababa City Council and the British Council libraries in their descriptions of public libraries in Ethiopia, since the institutions provide significant service to the public at large. The City Council Library primarily serves its employees but extends service to those who can find an employee sponsor. The British Council Library has a heavily used collection of about 40,000 books, but limited seating. In 1987–88, “22,000 registered readers borrowed almost 200,000 books, or 8.8 books per reader, and 320,000 users visited the library” (Pankhurst 1988, 243).
Addis Ababa University is recognized as the primary academic library resource in Ethiopia. The University was founded in 1961 when the University College of Addis Ababa, founded in 1950, merged with a number of existing institutions of higher learning, each with its own book collection. Library collections and services were gradually centralized. The result is a central library with six branch libraries in Addis Ababa, and subject specialty libraries — focusing on areas such as agriculture, law, medicine, and technology — on campuses in four other cities. Total University library holdings, which have been developed with Ford Foundation and USAID assistance, number about 550,000 volumes. A central ordering system also serves the constituent colleges outside the city. Materials are organized by the Library of Congress classification scheme. The main library is the Kennedy Library, which maintains a union catalog of materials in the University library system.
The Kennedy Library is reserved for use by staff and students beyond their first year; incoming students are relegated to special reading rooms, and graduate students have their own library. Complicated lending restrictions are enforced, depending on a student’s year of study (Pankhurst 1988,242). Since textbooks are not readily available, the library’s reserve section maintains multiple copies of textbooks for heavy in–house use by students. The library offers reference services and user education (Pankhurst 1988, 243). Library services for the visually handicapped have been available since 1976 (Tsadik 1992). The Library supports its own bindery and microfilm production facilities.
As of 1988, the University Library was able to maintain its level of funding for book budgets, despite cuts imposed on other university units, and even obtained increases in the early 1980s specifically to support graduate programs. Foreign exchange currency was available for periodical subscriptions, as well (Pankhurst 1988, 241). The recent growth in student population, however, has not been matched by sufficient growth of collections. The status of the Library’s finances since the heightened war activity and consequent 1991 change in government has not been reported in the literature.
Since 1974, enrollment at the tertiary education level in Ethiopia has tripled, and 10 institutions of higher learning have been established (Pankhurst 1988, 239). Some of these institutions may have libraries or reading rooms, but complete information is not available. Well–established institutions such as the Alemaya University of Agriculture, the Polytechnic Institute, and the Jimma Junior College of Agriculture all have modest book and periodical collections; library service is minimal with “no reference services, and user education ... limited to an initial library tour” (Pankhurst 1988, 243).
Little is written on school libraries in Ethiopia, probably because there is not much to report, but Mengste–Ab and Pankhurst shed some light on the subject in their writings (Mengste–Ab 1993; Pankhurst 1988). While the first school library was established in the Tafari Makonnen School in 1925, most were founded after the Italian occupation, when major secondary schools were equipped with book collections. Problems plague school libraries today: cramped quarters in overextended buildings; severe shortage of books in English (the language of instruction in secondary schools); inadequate, often outdated, collections; and lack of professional staff. These problems cannot be adequately addressed until the country grapples with the dramatic increase in school enrollment and the need for more schools. From 1974/75–1985/86, primary school enrollment increased two–and–one–half times to nearly 2.5 million students; during that same time the number of junior and senior secondary schools nearly doubled (Ofcansky 1993,131). The corresponding need for teachers is acute. Not surprisingly, teachers trained as librarians are placed in the classroom rather than the school library (Pankhurst 1988,1989). With only 42 percent of primary school–aged children and 5.3 percent of secondary school–aged children attending school (Ofcansky 1993,132), education is a high priority for the new government, which did increase education expenditures in 1992/93 (Africa 1994, 360).
The number of primary school libraries is negligible, although future new constructions will be designed as multipurpose educational buildings — with reading rooms — for the benefit of the local community (Pankhurst 1988,245). In those secondary schools with libraries, “most pupils may use the library for reference purposes only [due to the shortage of books]. Borrowing is restricted to staff and members of the library club, which accepts students of good conduct and proven interest in reading who are granted borrowing privileges in exchange for performing library duties” (Pankhurst 1988,243). Fortunately, newer schools are receiving an initial supply of books from World Bank funds.
Pankhurst estimates that there are 100 special libraries and “documentation centers” in Ethiopia (Pankhurst 1988,244). The nature and scope of materials and the level and sophistication of service vary widely. Alemie identifies four categories of special libraries in the country: government libraries, which make up the largest category; libraries belonging to “parastatal bodies” that do not rely wholly on government funds, and are generally well equipped, well funded, and staffed by trained personnel; libraries owned by international organizations, which are the best organized and equipped, and which are found, for the most part, in Addis Ababa; and industrial libraries, the smallest category, which are often maintained by unqualified or untrained staff (Alemie 1993b, 16–17).
Key problems among special libraries include a lack of cooperation among libraries for exchange of information or interlibrary loans; staffing by parapro–fessionals and clerical workers; and outdated, poorly organized collections, particularly in ministry and government department libraries (Alemie 1993b). These problems are certainly not unique to special libraries and seem inherent to Ethiopian librarianship.
Noteworthy special libraries of international organizations include the U.N. Economic Commission for Africa (EGA), established with its library in 1958, which maintains a strong collection of documents issued by African govern–ments and international agencies, books on African development, and periodicals. The Pan African Documentation and Information Systems for Social and Economic Development (PADIS), established by the ECA in 1980, and known for its extensive bibliographic and referral databases, numerical databanks, and telecommunications links (discussed and criticized by Sturges and Neill (Sturgis 1990, 32–34); and the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), founded in 1974, which acquired its library services in the early 1980s, and has in–house online database of its entire book and microfiche collection as well as access to international bibliographic databases such as Agricola, AGRIS, and CAB International. Mengste–Ab draws attention to the “libraries of long standing” of the National and Commercial Banks, the Institute of Public Administration, and the Police and Air Force Colleges (Wedgeworth 1993, 287). Libraries sponsored by other countries include those of the British Council, Alliance Franchise, and Goethe–Institut. An estimated 50,000 religious manuscripts can be found in repositories in some 12,500 churches and 800 monasteries throughout Ethiopia. From 1968, various pilot projects began to microfilm these collections with international assistance. An earnest effort to microfilm, catalog, repair, and return these manuscripts began in 1973, initiated by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and St. John’s University, Collegeville, Minnesota, with funding from the U.S. National Endowment for the Humanities. Sets numbering over 8,000 reels are kept in the Ethiopian Manuscript Microfilm Library, Addis Ababa, and at the Hill Monastic Manuscript Library, Collegeville. Pankhurst, Mengste–Ab, and Ourgay briefly discuss the project in their writings (Pankhurst 1972,218–219; Pankhurst 1988, 241; Mengste–Ab 1993, 287; Ourgay 1991, 396).
Gupta (1993) considers the development of the library profession and education in the U.S., U.K., and Africa as a base for his discussion of Ethiopia. Pankhurst’ s account of the history of library education in Ethiopia begins with “the early efforts to train Ethiopians in some rudiments of librarianship” through a series of short courses in basic library skills. The courses were held at various times from 1956 to 1964 (Pankhurst 1989, 5). In these early years, an Ethiopian student was sponsored to pursue a master’s degree in library science in the U.S. Formal library science courses at the university level were initiated in 1966 at Haile Selassie I University (now Addis Ababa University) through the Library Science Department of the Faculty of Education. Under the direction of an expatriate staff member brought in by UNESCO to structure and teach the courses, two programs were launched: a minor in library science within the Bachelor of Education degree for teacher–librarians; and a diploma program for “junior librarians.” In 1971/72, an Ethiopian became head of the department and sole full–time lecturer with continuing help from the University Library staff. The initial programs were both discontinued in 1976, for different reasons. The bachelor’s program failed because teacher shortages imposed heavy teaching loads that prevented any graduate from devoting time to a school library. The diploma program was reinstated with a revised curriculum in 1978, when the University Libraries unit was granted responsibility for the Library Science Department. The diploma program is still offered and can be completed in two years on a full–time basis, three years on a part–time basis, or in six summers for working teacher–librarians. By 1988, 425 students hac graduated from the program.
In order to meet the need for librarians who are familiar with the library applications of technology and are prepared for management positions, a Bachelor in Library and Information Science degree was to be initiated in the 1988/89 academic year, comprising a major in library and information science and a minor in computer science. Gupta (1993) describes the admission requirements and basic structure of the program, but sheds no light on the number of students enrolled or its success. Pankhurst (1989) states that the program was awaiting approval from the government central planning body and was delayed from commencing in 1988/89. Mengste–Ab (1993) mention; only the diploma program in his article on Ethiopian libraries.
As of 1988, only 25 Ethiopian librarians with master’s degrees or PhDs wen working, “or rather overworking,” in an estimated 400 Ethiopian libraries (Pankhurst 1988, 244). Most librarians obtained their degrees in the U.S., U.K., Russia, or east European countries, competing with other Ethiopian student; for scholarships abroad. A proposal for a regional graduate program in information science was put forward in 1981 by the Canadian Internationa Development Research Centre (IDRC) and UNESCO. In 1983, Addis Ababa University was selected as the site for the School of Information Studies for Africa (SISA), with the plan to offer a Master of Science degree in information science. The broad objective is “to respond to the growing need for high–levei personnel who can research, design, implement, manage, develop and operate information systems at the local, national and regional level” (Pankhurst 1989 8–9). The program can take up to 15 (Gupta 1993) or 20 (Pankhurst 1989; students from 19 eastern and southern African countries. According to Gupte (1993), the program began in the 1989/90 academic year, but he fails to give concrete evidence of its activity. Pankhurst (1989) mentions a delay in government approval, and Mengste–Ab makes no reference in his writing to what would be a significant educational program in Ethiopia (Wedgeworth 1993). Sturges and Neill present a less enthusiastic view of the School of Information Studies for Africa. They feel there is no strong justification for the program, question the choice of Addis Ababa as a location, criticize the delaj in its implementation, and express doubt that the program will actually materialize (Sturges 1990, 91–92). No recent literature about the school has appeared; however, an inquiry to the School did bring a response from Taye Tadesse — identified as Acting Dean — and a brochure. The brochure describes a “two–year postgraduate programme, leading to a Master of Science in Information Science degree, to which about 15 students are admitted per year.’ There are 10 required courses, 10 elective courses (students select one), and a thesis. Computer facilities are impressively described in a separate brochure; a modern computing lab ”has been providing full–fledged computing and information services as of September 1990“; it has the modern hardware and software that would be found in an American library school. So it seems that the school is doing well, and in terms of computer facilities it may be the strongest in east (or west) Africa.
The Ethiopian Library Association began as a club in 1961 upon the establishment of Haile Selassie I University. In 1965, it began publishing the Ethiopian Library Association Bulletin, which is issued twice a year in Amharic and English, to encourage members of the profession to conduct research in the field and share professional concerns. The Association was officially founded in 1967 and recognized as a registered society in 1969. In the early 1970s, the organization launched a public relations campaign to “bring to the notice of concerned authorities” and the general public the advantages of public library service (Job 1990,178). It utilized radio, television, newspapers, and other media to reach the intended audience; at that time public libraries were being established, albeit slowly, in provincial centers. In addition, the group submitted a draft of the legal deposit proclamation that was passed in 1975, a mandate long–awaited by the profession. Over the years, two directories have been published, one of Ethiopian libraries (1968) and one on special libraries in the country (1976). The Association supports professional development by assisting members to attend seminars and pursue courses in librarianship.
Both Job (1990) and Gupta (1993) note that the activities of the Association have slowed down dramatically in recent years “due to various reasons” (Job 1990,178). According to Job, the group dissolved in 1974 and has been since then “dysfunctional” (Job 1990,82). However, the Association continues to appear in various directories, with information that indicates a modest growth in membership over the past 15 years (Fang 1980; IFLA 1992; UNESCO 1983; World 1989). Membership was last reported as 150, including professionals, paraprofessionals, and institutions (World 1989).
The state of libraries and the concerns of librarians in Ethiopia may seem insignificant in the light of recent political insurgence, devastating famines, and a precarious economy. But even faced with these problems, the provisional government has made a commitment to education in its distribution of resources (Africa 1994,360). If this interest endures, library professionals and paraprofessionals will continue to contribute to the development of secondary and tertiary education, literacy programs, and the preservation of culture. Pride and optimism pervade the writings of librarians in Ethiopia — may it carry them through these unsettled times.
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Gail Nordstrom is Children’s Services Coordinator, Stillwater (Minnesota) Public Library. Earlier she worked as Assistant Librarian in the Health Sciences, Abbott–Northwestern Hospital, Minneapolis. She has a master’s degree in library and information science from Rosary College. In 1989 she was a consultant at the Gondar College of Medical Sciences in Ethiopia.
© 1995 Gail Nordstrom.
Citation
Nordstrom, Gail, “Libraries in Ethiopia: A Review of Recent Literature,” Third World Libraries, Volume 5, Number 2 (Spring 1995).